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	<title>Managementul cunoasterii</title>
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		<title>A few remarks on Science, Religion and Secularization by John Hedley Brooke</title>
		<link>http://www.managementulcunoasterii.ro/blogs/lavinia/2010/04/17/a-few-remarks-on-science-religion-and-secularization-by-john-hadley-brooke/</link>
		<comments>http://www.managementulcunoasterii.ro/blogs/lavinia/2010/04/17/a-few-remarks-on-science-religion-and-secularization-by-john-hadley-brooke/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sat, 17 Apr 2010 18:14:11 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>admin</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[in english]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Philosophy]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[conference]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[religion]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[science]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[secularization]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.managementulcunoasterii.ro/blogs/lavinia/?p=27</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[On the 15-th of March,]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="http://www.managementulcunoasterii.ro/blogs/lavinia/wp-content/uploads/DSC_7531pfl.jpg"><img class="size-thumbnail wp-image-562 alignleft" title="DSC_7531pfl" src="http://www.managementulcunoasterii.ro/blogs/lavinia/wp-content/uploads/DSC_7531pfl-150x150.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="150" /></a>On the 15-th of March, Mr. John Hadley Brooke held a lecture at the Faculty of Philosophy in Bucharest entitled: <em>Science, Religion and Secularization: Past Present and Future</em>. I will jot down here a few remarks about his lecture.</p>
<p>Mr. Brooke&#8217;s main thesis is that the process of secularization that we experienced in the last centuries wasn&#8217;t caused by science or at least not by science alone, but rather by religion eroding itself from the inside. So religion doesn&#8217;t actually contradict science (nor vice-versa) and science isn&#8217;t that important in the spiritual lives of people.</p>
<p><span id="more-27"></span></p>
<p>Now this idea is quite interesting coming from a theologian but let&#8217;s see how he proves it and what are the consequences of it if it were true.  He uses mostly a historical account of different events and he groups these events in certain order showing them to be relevant for his conclusion. But this way of proving things based on interpretation of history is itself prone to interpretation.</p>
<p>First Mr. Brooke talked about Dawkins and his opposing of Darwinian evolutionism to religion; Mr. Brooke wonders why people like Dawkins always chose bad examples of religion like creationism (which is so easy to defeat). My point of view here is that one chooses what is fallible in the opponent&#8217;s position and that&#8217;s what philosophers do; why should religion benefit from a special treatment and be held unaccountable for the scientifically irrelevant theories it produced? If religion backs up creationism, then religion should assume the responsibility for this and take the fall together with it. But maybe Mr Brooke&#8217;s point was that actually creationism wasn&#8217;t the official stance of christian religion all over the world. But this doesn&#8217;t really matter for an external observer, religions should settle this inside and then come out with a single point of view on the origin of life.</p>
<p>Then Mr. Brooke  said that the debate with religion makes science look more interesting and that&#8217;s why Dawkins uses it. That&#8217;s not very elegant and I hope it was just a joke on Mr. Brooke&#8217;s part as this statement implies something about the opponent&#8217;s intentions and in philosophy we call this an<em> ad hominem</em> argument.</p>
<p>Another argument was that 150 years of evolutionism in education didn&#8217;t erode the belief in creationism in countries like USA. Now this argument is flawed in many ways and I will show just a few. First of all it assumes that from the discovery of the theory of evolution until now this theory has been taught all over the world in a consistent and widespread manner but that is not the case. We all know that even today evolutionism isn&#8217;t taught everywhere in the USA so asking why people who never heard of evolutionism in their lives don&#8217;t believe it it&#8217;s kind of pointless. Secondly, science itself isn&#8217;t taught at an equal level in all states and countries and it all depends on the community in which the student was brought up. If you live in an Amish family, you will never even hear about the laws of physics; generally people coming from strong religious backgrounds will look with disbelief at anything that wasn&#8217;t already said in their church. It doesn&#8217;t even matter if the science teacher is allowed to teach evolutionism or not in certain communities if the children are already filled with disbelief before even hearing the arguments.</p>
<p>Third, why would it even matter that some people were not convinced by science in 150 years? Do we measure the truth of a theory by the number of its adherents? No, we do this only with religious cults. Was the decision of secularization of the state a common decision made by the population? No, it was a political decision taken long before the discovery of evolutionism.</p>
<p>The same type of arguments is present when Mr Brooke says that religious fundamentalism has known a resurgence in science-based societies. If a society has known the highest form of science through its research this doesn&#8217;t mean that the medium population has become more science literate. An example of fundamentalism + science given by Mr. Brooke: the terrorists using mobile phones and al jazeera television. But technology is different from science itself and using a mobile phone says nothing about your scientific education. Actually this is a problem of our own society: technologies become more and more complex and people become less and less trained to handle it, we are becoming barbarians with high-tech devices.</p>
<p>Another of his strange arguments was that religion influences science in strange ways &#8211; and he gives the example of a British astronomer, Eddington, who worked with German scientists during the second world war and he did this because he was a quaker and his faith made him act ethically and not treat the others as enemies. This argument assumes that one can&#8217;t be ethical unless one has faith in a god of whatever type.  But then what happens with the sea of believers who act unethically everyday? One needs some kind of methodology of assigning whether the behavior of someone is caused by her belief or by some different reasons, otherwise this is just observational selection: one chooses only the examples that support one&#8217;s theory and discards the rest as irrelevant.</p>
<p>And why would it have to matter so much to history if Einstein or Newton were believers or not? What they did in science had  to do with their religious choices as much as their choice of clothes had to do.</p>
<p>All these were the flaws and unconvincing arguments that Mr. Brooke had in his lecture but he had also a few good points. One of them was that a methodological naturalism doesn&#8217;t necessarily entail an ontological one. This point was interesting and really philosophical, I wish he would&#8217;ve concentrated more on ideas like these than on the personal lives and choices of scientists.</p>
<p>Another point was that the major source of secularization of the society was religion itself which is mined from the inside. When people chose a secularized society they do so because they are appalled by the  injustices in the world and the conflicts between different religious cults so it&#8217;s actually an ethical choice. This was a really interesting point and I think it deserved more thought and space than it was given in the conference.</p>
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		</item>
		<item>
		<title>Scepticism irational &#8211; inca un exemplu</title>
		<link>http://www.managementulcunoasterii.ro/blogs/lavinia/2009/12/16/scepticism-irational-inca-un-exemplu/</link>
		<comments>http://www.managementulcunoasterii.ro/blogs/lavinia/2009/12/16/scepticism-irational-inca-un-exemplu/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Wed, 16 Dec 2009 13:12:39 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>admin</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[in romana]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Philosophy]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[creationism]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[evolutionism]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[religie]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[scepticism irational]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[stiinta]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.ratiunepublica.ro/blog/7/?p=15</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Numesc scepticism irațional acea atitudine]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Numesc scepticism irațional acea atitudine a unui om care deși a primit dovezi suficiente pentru demonstrarea unei ipoteze, preferă să o respingă în favoarea unei alte ipoteze pentru care are și mai puține dovezi &#8211; dar care este în acord cu niște convingeri personale ale sale.<span id="more-16"></span></p>
<p>În disputa dintre evoluționiști și creaționiști avem  o ilustrare a scepticismului irațional. Pe de o parte evoluționiștii furnizează dovezi cu nemiluita, pe de altă parte creaționiștii le resping pe toate și cer dovezi și mai bune, și mai precise. Până de curând nu exista nici o fosilă a verigăi lipsa între om și predecesorii ei. Apoi a fost găsită Lucy și creaționiștii au spus că nu e de ajuns, ne mai trebuie fosile și pentru exemplarele aflate între Lucy și oameni &#8211; practic au spart problema la infinit, cerând să se umple orice interval evolutiv cu noi și noi dovezi.</p>
<p>Și deși creaționiștii cer dovezi palpabile evoluționiștilor, ei nu furnizează nimic asemănător. Criteriile de rigurozitate pe care le cer de la evoluționiști nu li se aplică și lor &#8211; aici lucrează cu metafore, cu interpretări ale citatelor din Biblie etc. Problema care se pune este următoarea: ai dreptul să ceri dovezi tot mai tari dacă tu nu furnizezi nici una? Și ai dreptul să ceri aceste dovezi dacă și în prezența lor tu o sa contești totuși teoria în anasamblul ei și erai pregătit să o contești înainte să primești orice dovadă?</p>
<p>Este ca și cum avem o serie aritmetică, punctul de pornire și rația progresiei: cu aceste date putem calcula orice termen al seriei, oricât de mare. Un evoluționist se mulțumește cu legea generală, un creaționist însă ar cere să i se calculeze manual fiecare termen al seriei ca să verifice el că nu se întâmplă ceva ciudat și la un moment dat seria o ia aiurea și nu mai respectă legea matematică.</p>
<p>Desigur că analogia matematică &#8211; științele naturii nu poate ține decât până la un anumit punct, în științele naturii lucrăm cu legi ceva mai puțin precise dar totuși legi; avem generalizări și ipoteze verificate, avem teorii bazate pe experimente și predicții confirmate. Evoluționismul a fost confirmat tocmai pentru că s-au găsit acele fosile la care Darwin nu avea acces pe când formula teoria sa &#8211; tot așa cum tabelul lui Mendeleev a fost confirmat de alți oameni care au găsit substanțele de negăsit pe vremea lui Mendeleev.</p>
<p>Ce se întâmplă de fapt în dialogul creaționiști &#8211; evoluționiști este tocmai lipsa de dialog. Evoluționistul asumă ca punct de plecare metoda științifică: generalizare și verificare; nu poți avea o reproducere a lumii prin experiment la scara 1:1. Creaționistul respinge exact partea de generalizare, el cere o instanță actuală pentru fiecare lege, ca și cum pentru a verifica dacă legile mecanicii mai sunt valabile le-am verifica în fiecare minut cu un plan înclinat, cu un pendul etc. Acum mai sunt adevărate? Dar acum? Dar acum?Știința nu funcționează așa.</p>
<p>Lipsa de dialog este evidentă pentru că pe de o parte avem niște sceptici iraționali &#8211; creaționiștii, și pe de alta niște oameni de știință care discută din paradigma lor de știință normală și nu înțeleg că nu li se contestă o metodă anume de către ceilalți, ci toată paradigma. Acest dialog nu se poartă în interiorul științei și de aceea toate confuziile inerente.</p>
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		<item>
		<title>Democratia si sistemul electoral</title>
		<link>http://www.managementulcunoasterii.ro/blogs/lavinia/2009/04/25/democratia-si-sistemul-electoral/</link>
		<comments>http://www.managementulcunoasterii.ro/blogs/lavinia/2009/04/25/democratia-si-sistemul-electoral/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sat, 25 Apr 2009 17:59:24 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>admin</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[in romana]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Philosophy]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[alegeri]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[competenta]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[cunoastere]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[democratie]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[electoral]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[reprezentativitate]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[sistem]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.ratiunepublica.ro/blog/7/?p=14</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Stim cu totii ca democratia]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Stim cu totii ca democratia este singura forma de guvernamant perfectibila – in teorie cel putin. Intrebarea pe care ar trebui sa ne-o punem azi este cand si de ce am incetat sa o mai perfectionam?</p>
<p><span id="more-15"></span><br />
Pentru multi oameni garantia unei societati democratice o dau alegerile libere la care au dreptul sa participe toti cetatenii adulti. Multi oameni merg pana la a spune ca alegerile libere sunt o conditie suficienta de a avea o democratie – aceasta ar fi The fallacy of Electoralism dupa Philippe Schmitter si Terry Lynn Karl si ea consta in:<br />
“the faith that merely holding elections will channel political action into peaceful contests among elites and accord public legitimacy to the winners”<br />
Aceasta eroare este usor de demontat pentru ca este evident ca mai avem nevoie de cel putin o componenta cheie in procesul democratic: reprezentativitatea. Avem nevoie ca cetatenii (sau cel putin majoritatea lor) sa isi aiba interesele reprezentate de politicienii alesi. A treia conditie necesara ar fi ca minoritatile nereprezentate in parlament sau guvern sa nu poata fi oprimate. Cu aceste trei conditii minimale putem spune ca avem o democratie. Desigur, exista mai multe conditii decat 3, Dahl schita 7 asemenea conditii iar Philippe Schmitter si Terry Lynn Karl mai adaugau doua conditii in articolul lor What democracy is and is not. Problema pe care as vrea sa o semnalez aici este conflictul dintre cerinta alegerilor universale si reprezentativitate. Asa cum se organizeaza alegerile in toate statele democratice din lumea de azi, efectul garantat este ca rezultatele alegerilor nu vor reprezenta vointa majoritatii – in cel mai bun caz ele reprezinta vointa unor mici grupuri de interese, in cel mai rau caz vointa nimanui.</p>
<p>Problema apare nu in faptul ca alegerile sunt libere sau ca toti cetatenii voteaza, ci ca ei voteaza aceleasi politici abstracte care nu pot sa satisfaca cerintele si nevoile specifice ale cetatenilor. Voi schita in continuare modul in care se desfasoara alegerile intr-o tara democratica.</p>
<p>In general cetatenii voteaza membrii unui partid pe baza unei platforme ideologice conturate destul de vag : chestiunile discutate in campaniile elctorale se invart cel mai mult in jurul taxelor si al politicilor de asistenta sociala si sunt destul de abstracte ; cetatenii care voteaza sunt oameni framantati de probleme mai complexe si mai diverse. Un singur om poate fi interesat de pilda de o educatie publica mai buna  pentru copiii sai, sa isi doreasca asigurari medicale private, o politica ecologista consistenta a Statului si o egalizare a taxelor indiferent de venit. Prima si a treia optiune sunt de stanga, a doua si a patra sunt optiuni liberale de dreapta. Pe cine va vota acest cetatean? Pe nimeni, evident, pentru ca nimeni nu are in platforma sa aceste scopuri atat de diferite. Sau se va multumi cu the next best candidate care promite macar indeplinirea a doua din patru. Acest cetatean are toata justificarea sa nu voteze deoarece el are niste nevoi complexe si specifice iar platformele candidatilor sunt generale si abstracte. Ca el sunt multi alti oameni, fiecare din ei cu alte probleme si scopuri, cu alte cerinte de la Stat. Ce facem cu ei?</p>
<p>Filosoful obisnuit cu impartirile clasice si simple intre dreapta si stanga ar putea sa le ceara acestor cetateni sa se decida pentru o orientare politica generala si sa voteze in acord cu ea. Dar oamenii, spre deosebire de partide, nu sunt obligati sa fie de dreapta sau stanga si nu ar trebui sa fie. Problema nereprezantativitatii candidatilor este o problema serioasa si nu trebuie ignorata. Cand un om voteaza, el transfera dreptul sau de decizie politica unui alt cetatean, acest transfer confera legitimitate tuturor deciziilor pe care politicianul le va face pe timpul mandatului sau. Dar daca transferul este facut in lehamite si de forma, el este fara sens.<br />
Multi oameni nu isi exercita dreptul de a vota in statele democratice occidentale si aceasta tendinta este in crestere. Ce se intampla cu ei? Am putea fi tentati sa spunem ca ei nu sunt constienti politic, ca nu sunt responsabili sau sa gasim alte moduri de a-i invinovati, dar poate ca ei sunt mai responsabili decat ne imaginam. Puterea politica este un dar mult prea pretios ca sa il transferi oricui doar ca sa se cheme ca ai votat. Poate ca acesti oameni simt clar ca nimeni nu merita acest transfer de putere de decizie,prin urmare refuza sa o faca. Multi oameni nu voteaza pentru ca simt ca vocea lor nu conteaza, ca ei nu sunt recunoscuti ca alegatori. Si problema este cea schitata mai sus: ei nu conteaza in platformele politice tocmai pentru ca au cerinte atat de specifice pe care nici un politician nu le poate indeplini – poate daca am avea cate un politician pentru fiecare alegator, adica o democratie directa, atunci aceste cerinte ar fi satisfacute. Nu voi pleda aici pentru democratia directa deoarece cred ca se poate salva reprezentativitatea democratiei si voi arata mai departe cum.</p>
<p>O alta problema , de o natura cu totul diferita, este problema competentei politicienilor. Aceasta problema este epistemica  si are legatura cu autoritatea. Ne place sa credem ca alegem oameni comptenti in functii de mare responsabilitate, acolo unde cunostintele lor vor fi folosite efectiv in folosul tuturor. Adevarul este ca nu putem controla unde va ajunge candidatul pe care il alegem si cat de bine va fi folosit el. Ce alegem de fapt?</p>
<p>Alegem un partid care va alege un prim ministru care va desemna niste ministri care vor administra asa cum cred ei de cuviinta domeniile respective. Majoritatea intereselor alegatorilor sunt legate de deciziile ministeriale sau de anumite legi date de parlamentari. Dar asupra ministerelor alegatorii nu au nici o influenta iar asupra legilor la fel. Presupunand ca oamenii dintr-o circumscriptie aleg un jurist competent pe care il trimit in parlament special pentru a discuta noul cod penal. Presupunem ca alegatorii nu mai au alte interese de la el, ei vor doar ca el sa isi foloseasca competenta in discutarea noilor legi. Din pacate influenta oamenilor competenti in votarea legilor in parlament este minima. Un singur vot constient nu inseamna nimic in marea de voturi ignorante si trebuie sa luam in considerare ideea ca parlamentarii care voteaza un cod penal sunt in proportie de 80% ignoranti cu privire la  ceea ce voteaza pentru ca ei au alte specializari, fiind recrutati din toate mediile sociale. Problema aceasta nu este noua, se cunoaste perfect si de aceea s-au inventat comisiile parlamentare: juristii si specialistii analizeaza optiunile, fac un raport pe care il prezinta plenului, apoi se voteaza. Dar intrebarea care se pune acum este: cat de competenta este masa de parlamentari dupa ascultarea unui raport? Pot ei sa inteleaga subtilitatile formularilor legale si toate implicatiile? Normal ca nu. Atunci cum stiu ei ce sa voteze? Nu stiu si de aceea isi intreaba partidul.  Cand o masa de ignoranti voteaza niste legi nu competenta va prevala, ci interesele de partid sau grup. Raportul comisiei juridice in acest caz nu va face o mare diferenta daca partidele politice aveau deja un punct de vedere anterior.</p>
<p>Este clar ca avem de a face aici cu un prost management al cunoasterii. Oamenii care ar trebui sa decida in chestiuni la care se pricep sunt anulati de masa ignoranta care da majoritatea voturilor. Vocea cunoasterii se pierde in schema mai mare a intereselor de partid. Ca alegator, fiecare isi doreste ca legile statului sa fie formulate de oamenii cei mai competenti si mai responsabili dar sistemul, asa cum este gandit, nu permite manifestarea competentei. Atunci cand un parlamentar voteaza cu egala autoritate in chestiuni de cod penal, cod rutier, taxe economice, drepturi ale minoritatilor, buget si drepturi de autor, ceva nu este in regula &#8211; mai ales daca el personal nu se pricepe decat la ingineria motoarelor cu reactie. Este clar ca votul lui in aceste cazuri nu va conta, ca individualitatea lui nu se va exprima prin acest vot, ca ratiunea si gandirea lui sunt date la o parte iar el va fi doar o masina de vot in interesul partidului sau. Cand un parlamentar nu isi poate exercita abilitatile de gandire critica pentru ca totul il depaseste, el nu isi serveste alegatorii si nu reprezinta de fapt pe nimeni in parlament; puterea pe care o are de a vota nu mai este a lui si o foloseste fraudulos. Alegatorii sai nu l-au votat ca sa asculte orbeste de un partid, l-au votat ca sa isi foloseasca ratiunea, simtul moral si expertiza in folosul tarii sale.</p>
<p>Ce este de facut? Am putea obliga parlamentarii sa ia cursuri de legislatie, economie, administratie si orice ne mai trece prin minte, dar nu este fezabil. In scurt timp nu se pot invata decat generalitati si chestii inutile, cunostintele necesare votarii unei legi specifice cerand ani de pregatire si specializare. O alta solutie ar fi sa lasam doar comisiile sa voteze. Cand se creeaza o comisie de analiza a unei legi, acea comisie este stabilita pe criteriul competentei – de ce nu ar si vota legea tot acea comisie, fara sa mai treaca legea prin plen?<br />
Problema evidenta aici este ca unii parlamentari ar avea puteri mai mari decat altii, deci oamenii care i-au votat ar fi mai importanti decat altii, deci s-ar incalca cerinta votului egal. Apoi putem presupune ca oamenii care ar fi numiti in comisii ar fi numiti exclusiv pe criterii politice, mimand competenta.</p>
<p>Problema competentei alesilor are un simetric in problema competentei alegatorilor. Noi nu ne punem niciodata problema despre ce stiu alegatorii atunci cand voteaza, daca sunt ei capabili sa aleaga cel mai bun om – si nu vorbim aici de competenta morala, ci tot asa, de specializari. Voturile oamenilor trebuie sa fie egale,acesta este un principiu fundamental al democratiei, dar ce se intampla cand egalitatea asta garanteaza ca votul unor ignoranti va coplesi votul oamenilor informati?  Si acesta este cazul de cele mai multe ori.<br />
Nu propun ca solutie o forma de elitism dar trebuie inteles bine ca noi de fapt ignoram specificul fiecarui alegator tot asa cum ignoram competentele alesilor cand acceptam ca majoritatile ignorante sa decida in orice situatie. Din cauza ignorarii competentei alegatorului se ajunge la votul emotional si populist.  Dar oamenii nu sunt irationali de la natura, foarte putini oameni sunt total irationali. Doar ca sistemul electoral actual nu le da posibilitatea unei alegeri in care ratiunea si competentele lor sa conteze si atunci ei aleg sa nu mai voteze sau voteaza cu cel mai populist candidat pentru ca spera macar in virtutile lui morale.<br />
Idealul ar fi ca niste alegatori competenti sa voteze niste parlamentari competenti pentru niste atributii specifice. In continuare as vrea sa schitez un posibil sistem de vot care ar corecta neajunsurile prezentate mai sus. Sistemul de vot pe care o sa il prezint se numeste vot partial din lipsa de un nume mai bun.<br />
Cum am spus mai sus, problema alegatorului este ca mari parti din puterea politica ii sunt inaccesibile – el nu poate decide prin votul sau nici macar de departe care va fi structura lor. Exemplul cel mai evident este puterea executiva. Oamenii voteaza numai in ceea ce priveste puterea legislativa dar vietile lor sunt afectate mai mult de deciziile executive decat de deciziile legislative. In fapt, pentru o democratie stabila istoric, legile nu au nevoie de schimbari radicale la fiecare 4 ani si sunt destul de bune si de functionale. Miza adevarata a tuturor alegerilor este de fapt cine primeste puterea executiva? Si exact aici cetatenii cu drept de vot nu au nici un cuvant de spus.</p>
<p>Ne dorim ca oamenii sa isi poata alege ministrul sanatatii (de exemplu) si echipa lui manageriala direct, bazandu-se pe alte considerente decat cele de partid. Cum ar arata o lume in care oamenii ar alege ministrii si echipele de specialisti ministeriali direct? In primul rand am avea niste alegeri fragmentate si mult mai interesante. Discutiile din campanie s-ar axa strict pe probleme specifice de interes  general, dezbaterile s-ar purta intre specialisti si termenii de discutie ar inceta sa mai fie termeni emotionali sau populisti, discursul politic n-ar mai fi despre moralitate si coruptie, ci un discurs civilizat ce ar apela la ratiune.<br />
Daca democratiile moderne ar adopta acest sistem de alegeri partiale,  in care fiecare  alegator practic alege fiecare ministru si echipa sa, atunci nu s-ar mai pune problema dezinteresului. Cand nu ti se cere sa votezi o politica difuza despre nationalism si stanga-dreapta, ci ai de ales intre politici specifice in sanatate sau invatamant, cand stii exact cum te va afecta fiecare, atunci nu ai nici un motiv sa nu te prezinti la vot. Si nu mai ai de reprosat politicienilor ca nu iti vorbesc despre interesele tale particulare. Nimeni nu poate avea interese mai specifice decat acestea. Mai mult, daca o campanie se poarta pe subiecte specifice, exista un feed-back rapid de la alegatori care pot sanctiona la urmatoarele alegeri politicienii care nu au facut ce au promis. Dar cand votezi un partid pentru Parlament cum il poti sanctiona la urmatoarele alegeri? Ce ii poti reprosa? Ca nu a fost destul de stanga sau de dreapta? Reprezentantii sai o sa spuna ca au fost,asa cum au inteles ei sa fie.</p>
<p>Sistemul acesta ar rezolva partial si problema competentei. Oamenii au sansa sa voteze pentru fiecare minister in parte dar nu sunt obligati sa o faca si astfel, de fapt fiecare va vota in functie de interesele sale si de competentele sale. Cand esti competent intr-un domeniu nu se poate sa nu te intereseze si sa nu incerci sa il schimbi. Astfel, de exemplu pentru ministerul sanatatii ar vota toti medicii, asistentele si farmacistii, dar probabil si oamenii care au avut de a face cu sistemul , fosti pacienti, sau rude ale lor. In genere, oamenii care stiu ceva despre domeniu vor fi mai interesati sa voteze pentru ministerul respectiv decat cei care habar nu au si astfel ponderea voturilor informate va creste mult in defavoarea voturilor ignorante. Acesta este clar un castig pentru democratie si pentru spiritul civic.</p>
<p>Avem nevoie de discutii specifice pe subiecte bine circumscrise, avem nevoie de politici clar formulate inainte de a vota pe cineva. Si numai un vot partial poate asigura asta. Demagogia si oratoria goala ar muri inainte de a se naste pentru ca atunci cand oamenii stiu clar ce isi doresc de la un candidat, nu mai sunt impresionati de nationalisme si patriotisme goale. Cand un candidat  si-ar face campanie pentru ministerul educatiei  sa zicem, el nu ar putea sa arunce doar vorbe goale despre problemele din scoli si universitati pentru ca cei care il vor vota, profesorii, parintii de elevi, stiu ei singuri si nemijlocit care sunt problemele din scoli si licee. Intr-o astfel de campanie pe subiecte circumscrie s-ar vedea clar cine vorbetse cu discursuri invatate si cine are habar de problemele reale pentru ca s-a mai confruntat cu ele.</p>
<p>In ceea ce priveste votul pentru parlament, structura sa ar ramane neschimbata, oamenii votand pentru candidati regionali. S-ar multiplica numarul de liste si de optiuni dar cu un castig clar in informare si decizie pentru cetateni. Probabil ca unii ar vota doar candidatii pentru un anumit minister, altii ar vota pentru mai multe, si cativa pentru toate. Unele ministere ar avea putini votanti – de ex ministerul mediului- dar am avea certitudinea ca aceia care voteaza sunt intereesati in mod real de problemele mediului si ca votul lor e informat; alte ministere probabil ar avea o masa uriasa de votanti- de ex ministerul de interne. Un alt avantaj ar fi ca nu va mai fi cazul ca un ministru incompetent sa fie numit pe criterii politice de catre un prim minsitru dezinteresat, alegatorii ar avea grija ca nici un om incompetent sa nu mai poata prinde un post ministerial vreodata.</p>
<p>Ce ne dorim de la o societate este ca cetatenii ei sa fie cat mai informati si mai putin manipulabili, cat mai implicati in viata politica pentru ca puterea ce o transfera ei alesilor sa nu mai fie putere risipita si fara consecinte. Democratia este despre puterea efectiva a poporului folosita pentru popor. Lincoln a definit-o ca “power for the people, by the people”. Acesta este idealul : ca vocile oamenilor sa aiba o influenta mai mare asupra a ceea ce se intampla cu ei in societatea in care traiesc. Cat timp puterea executiva le va fi inaccesibila, ei nu vor avea o putere reala, vor fi manipulati si indecisi, scarbiti sau apatici, cat timp nu li se spune ca ratiunea si expertiza lor conteaza  ei nu vor avea motive suficiente sa voteze.</p>
<p>Desigur, sistemul votului partial nu este lipsit de defecte, nu anuleaza posibilitatea manipularii si a demagogiei, dar reduce in mod evident aceste riscuri. Daca un ministru demagog va ajunge in fruntea unui minister, este improbabil ca si ceilalti colegi ai sai de la alte minsitere sa fie alesi la fel de neinspirat – pentru ca alti oameni ii aleg. O problema ar fi de organizare, ar fi cheltuieli mai mari electorale si campaniile simultane pentru mai multe ministere ar risca sa fie prea multe in acelasi timp, ametind potentialul alegator.<br />
Cred ca votul partial este o cale de mijloc intre votul actual si democratia participativa totala. In cazul celei din urma, aceasta presupune cate un referendum pentru fiecare lege nou adoptata, si este foarte greu de organizat dar avantajul evident este ca oamenii au putetrea politica efectiv in mana. Votul reprezentativ le ia aceasta putere fara sa le ofere garantia ca opiniile lor conteaza sau ca  ei pot genera un feed-back la urmatoarele alegeri; da, ei pot pedepsi politicienii corupti ne-mai votandu-i, dar cum ramane cu politicienii incompetenti sau apatici, cu cei neobservati, cu masinile de vot? Cum sa ii tragi la raspundere cand sistemul presupune delegarea responsabilitatii pana la pierderea totala a urmei?</p>
<p>Trebuie sa alegem daca o sa luam democratia in serios sau o sau o  consideram ca un sistem pur formal de alegeri in care niciodata nu conteaza ce vrem pentru ca nu e nici cea mai mica legatura intre oamenii pe care ii alegem si interesele noastre specifice. Democratia nu poate fi tratata ca o formalitate goala fara sa existe pericole inerente pentru o societate libera; cand apatia se instaleaza printre alegatori, orice dictator poate ajunge la putere prin procedee democratice. Cetatenii nu trebuie sa aiba impresia ca votul lor nu conteaza, ca alegerile lor nu au nici o semnificatie si ca ar putea la fel de bine sa stea acasa. Adevarul este ca in orice democratie se gasesc destui cetateni competenti si informati care sa poata lua deciziile corecte in ceea ce priveste mersul societatii. Azi oamenii sunt confruntati cu falsa dilema ca daca le pasa de societatea in care traiesc, nu se pot implica decat ca actvisti ong sau intrand intr-un partid. Li se spune ca puterea pe care o delega ei prin alegeri este pur formala. Nu ar trebui sa fie asa. Cetatenii unei democratii ar trebui sa fie implicati in dezbaterile publice fara ca aceste dezbateri sa aiba forme politice. Oamenii nu vor sa se implice intr-un partid daca asta presupune renuntarea la viata personala, dar ei vor sa aiba un cuvant de spus in ceea ce priveste anumite subiecte care ii preocupa in special. O democratie pare sa iasa mai puternica daca cetatenii ei sunt implicati in procesul decizional si nu se mai lasa “reprezentati ” orbeste de niste straini ocazionali, si conditia pentru o democratie puternica este si un proces electoral just in care puterea este transferata de la cetateni la politicieni in mod transparent, cu un scop precis si  in cunostinta de cauza. Conditiile pentru un astfel de transfer de putere par sa fie indeplinite de alegerile partiale.</p>
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		<item>
		<title>What does the recession say about us</title>
		<link>http://www.managementulcunoasterii.ro/blogs/lavinia/2009/01/31/what-does-the-recession-say-about-us/</link>
		<comments>http://www.managementulcunoasterii.ro/blogs/lavinia/2009/01/31/what-does-the-recession-say-about-us/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sat, 31 Jan 2009 13:53:02 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>admin</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[in english]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Philosophy]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[crisis]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Economy]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[recession]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.ratiunepublica.ro/blog/7/?p=13</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Here is the online video]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><strong><a href="http://video.dld-conference.com/watch/aj4OXAg" target="_blank">Here</a> </strong>is the online video of a DLD conference in which Daniel Kahnemann, a psychologist and Nassim Taleb, an economist,  talk about what&#8217;s going on right now with the recession and what led to it. This conference is very interesting and informative, to say the least. In this post I would like to ponder a little on a few of the ideas presented there. <span id="more-14"></span></p>
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<p><![endif]-->One of the ideas presented there was that people ignore risks because they prefer not to think about them, it makes them feel safer if they ignore the threats; and if they have statistics that show how a risk is very small, they will believe the statistics although this kind of data is irrelevant for unexpected disasters. What professor Taleb calls a &#8220;black swan&#8221; is an event very rare that you can not possibly predict it. Yet black swans come and go, rare events happen, yet we are never prepared for them. Our current statistical methods do not take them into account because we have no theoretical model for such things &#8211; therefore the black swans do not exist. It is some sort of wishful thinking, we hope that if we close our eyes the black swans will never come because if we don&#8217;t see them, the disasters won&#8217;t notice us either.</p>
<p>Current economical methods dwell in the normal everyday events and can predict them with a high degree of accuracy. But in face of an imminent disaster this mainstream economy is helpless. It cannot predict these rare events, it cannot handle them, it cannot stop them from repeating in let&#8217;s say 20 years. After this crisis will be over people will still predict events using the old models and nothing will have changed, unless we do something to change the system right now.</p>
<p>An interesting philosophical problem is how the USA government chose to handle the financial crisis. As we all know, a few banks led to this disaster. The banks were privately owned and acted as if they were on a free market, their risks were their own to take, the benefits were theirs. Now as the banks started to collapse, suddenly the risk was shared with the State, and banks acted as if the State had a duty to bail them out.  In other words, what we win is ours (free market, private company) what we lose is everybody&#8217;s concern (State-controlled market, nationalized company). This is a dual thinking, very strange because it combines two economical models which shouldn’t be merged like this.</p>
<p>Why should taxpayers pay the debts of a privately owned firm? What is the logic in this? The main concern was of course that people would lose their money which they had previously deposited in a bank account.  When the banks took high risks and indebted themselves, they never thought about the concerns of those people who trusted them with their lifetime savings. But the State has to think about these sorts of things, because it&#8217;s the State&#8217;s duty to be paternalist and take care of everybody. But then why doesn&#8217;t the State save every little firm that goes bankrupt? Let&#8217;s say a small bicycle company  has 3 employees and it goes bankrupt.  Why doesn&#8217;t the State jump in to save the firm and therefore to save 3 people form unemployment? Because 3 unemployed people would not be a disaster for the national economy, because we have a free market, fair competition, and they have to find work themselves. But let&#8217;s just imagine that the small bicycle company had made huge investments in stocks and that now, with its bankruptcy, the stock exchange will go down because of one man who invested that which he did not have. He took foolish risks and now the economy will suffer. Now the State has sufficient reason to bail the company out. In the first scenario, the owner of the company was a reasonable man and he lost, in the second scenario he was a fool who took absurd risks and won.</p>
<p>Things should not be like this. If we take the risks of someone upon us, we should benefit from the profits also, and vice versa. As long as the banks never shared their profit with the State and its taxpayers, the banks should not benefit from State-insurance. The people who took risky decisions in those banks were always in a win-win situation and therefore we couldn&#8217;t expect any responsibility from them. Before the crisis they had huge profits. After the crisis they used the money received from the state to pay themselves bonuses and high salaries and then took further risks with their investments. Whatever they do they know that someone will bail them out no matter what because it&#8217;s people&#8217;s money they are toying with. If they go bankrupt, so does the whole country and the State will do whatever it can so it doesn&#8217;t come to this.</p>
<p>Now their position is very rational and profit oriented. What they do is rational although  not ethical, and they cannot be blamed for irrationality while gambling other people&#8217;s money. We shouldn&#8217;t start an absurd quest for angels that will replace the corrupt executives;  if we had been in their shoes maybe we would have made the same decisions. What philosophers and economists have to do right now is to find an economical system that will not allow people to get in such positions that favors total irresponsibility. That is, back to Popper, to find such a system that will work even if the worse people would become its leaders  &#8211; only this time we are talking about an economical system.</p>
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		<title>The public use of reason</title>
		<link>http://www.managementulcunoasterii.ro/blogs/lavinia/2008/10/15/the-public-use-of-reason/</link>
		<comments>http://www.managementulcunoasterii.ro/blogs/lavinia/2008/10/15/the-public-use-of-reason/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Wed, 15 Oct 2008 19:29:03 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>admin</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[in english]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Philosophy]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[public]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[rationality]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[reason]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.ratiunepublica.ro/blog/7/?p=12</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[There are at least two]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>There are at least two ways in which one could understand the word &#8220;reason&#8221;:</p>
<p>1. instrumental reason (or economical reasoning) is that type of reason which concerns only the means of attaining a goal. If one has the purpose y than whatever one does is reasonable as long as it helps in attaing this goal. Thus we can talk about reason even when the action is illegal or immoral because what matters here is the efficiency.<span id="more-13"></span></p>
<p>2. reason as a goal (teleological reason); reason is held as a value here and it is used to select further values. Being reasonable is something good in itself.</p>
<p>These two views are quite common and hardly worth mentioning however the question that sould arise here is this: what type of reason do we have in mind when we talk about public reason? For example in a public debate should reason intervene when we set our targets or its just an instrument to achieve our ambitions, no matter what these are?</p>
<p>The &#8220;politically correct&#8221; view would set reason as the low level, the instrumental one &#8211; because there we can all agree on our terms, we can all understand each other when we talk about &#8220;what is reasonable and what is not&#8221;.</p>
<p>The more courageous position would state that we should choose our values in a rational way &#8211; but this position will probably arise suspicion because we have only one reason (the kantian, universal reason) so there should be only one set of values to follow and adhere to. This sounds like the beginning of a holy war in the name of reason against all wrong-doers.</p>
<p>In my future posts I will try to show that the nature of values is a rational one and argue in favor of the second meaning of reason.</p>
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		<title>Public reason</title>
		<link>http://www.managementulcunoasterii.ro/blogs/lavinia/2008/09/25/public-reason/</link>
		<comments>http://www.managementulcunoasterii.ro/blogs/lavinia/2008/09/25/public-reason/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 25 Sep 2008 19:27:22 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>admin</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[in english]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Philosophy]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[public]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Rawls]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[reason]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.ratiunepublica.ro/blog/7/?p=11</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[&#8220;Public reason is the phrase]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>&#8220;Public reason is the phrase used by American philosopher John Rawls to refer to the common reason of all citizens in a pluralist society. Public reason is contrasted by Rawls with the nonpublic reason employed by citizens as members of religious associations or as adherents to particular moral and philosophical doctrines.&#8221;</p>
<p>( Wikipedia )</p>
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